Understanding the nature of motivation

Understanding the nature of motivation Abstract The paper dwells on motivation for addiction. A literature review reveals that most people will be inclined towards drug taking because of environmental factors like availability, genetic predispositions, developmental factors such as adolescence, personality components such as prevalence of psychotic traits like impulsivity, adaptations of the neurobiological system and its mechanisms as well.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Understanding the nature of motivation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Adaptations occur when conditioning of the external stimuli arises. The gap in literature review found that most papers did not link motivation for drug use with preventive outcomes. A multimodal approach to drug treatment and prevention has been proposed so as to offer more successful and accurate drug programs. Introduction Addiction is defined as the propensity to indulge in strange and even destructive beha vior; addicts will often lack the ability to control their habit and may continue to indulge in it even with external intervention. Several studies have been carried out in the field of drug addiction to find out what motivates users to continue taking drugs. A literature review in this area reveals that almost all motivation falls in these six categories: genetic, environmental, neurobiological mechanisms, neurobiological adaptation, personality and developmental factors. Most studies tend to focus on assessment of one or more of these factors but very few have found a way of relating these motivations to prevention and treatment programs thus minimizing the usefulness of their researches. The present study will look at current findings in the field of addiction motivation and will eventually provide recommendations on how these findings can be translated into tangible prevention outcomes. In other words, the main purpose of this research is to suggest a multi – modal approa ch that will link motivation for drug taking to tangible prevention outcomes. Experimental evidence Most analyses focus on collection of literature, analysis of drug addicts or experimentation with lab animals in order to unravel the nature of addiction. Crowley (1972) carried out a comprehensive study of addiction through the use of secondary literature and theoretical frameworks.Advertising Looking for term paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More He found that drug reinforcers can either be primary or secondary in that they either cause the effect of the drug directly or they lead to an effect that comes to be associated with the drug. Secondary reinforcers may either be positive or negative. He suggested that a negative secondary reinforcement was one that was learned or conditioned. In other words, if an addict experienced his or her first withdrawal effects in his parent’s house then chances are that the person would get the same feelings in his parent’s house even if he was not going through a withdrawal and this is called negative secondary reinforcement. Alternatively, conditioning or secondary reinforcement may also be positive in that it can be associated with particular peers. Although Crowley (1972) called these conditional motivators secondary reinforcement, other researchers have given them a more scientific name known as neurobiological adaptation. Examples here include Volkow Wise (2005) Robbins and Everitt (1999). These authors explained that decisions to take drugs were associated with the concept of reward and motivation. In other words, the neurobilogical system through a neurotransmitter known as dopamine has the capacity to create a positive reinforcement in the drug addict. Evidence of this assertion was confirmed by Robbins and Everitt (1999) who studied behavior in rats and found that they would self administer drugs using a level system if dopamine was active and when the neurotransmitter was inactivated, no self administration of cocaine would take place. Usually, that part of the brain is responsible for learned responses such as memory. Consequently, it can be said that the drug seeker is looking for the same reward that the drug accords him or her and this leads him to continual use. Conditioned stimuli (situations that are associated with drug taking that produce desirable outcomes but are not from the drug itself) have the capacity to cause relapses because they activate the dopamine neurological system. These researches have therefore illustrated that neurobiological adaptation is another important motivation for drug use It should be noted that neural biological adaptations are different from neurobiological mechanisms as another motivation for drug use. Neurobiological mechanisms basically refer to alterations in the biology of the drug user upon consumption. When drugs get into the system, they trigger a cer tain section of the brain which is responsible for stimulation and this leads to the development of a pleasurable feeling. In other words, this is the reward that many drug seekers tend to look for.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on Understanding the nature of motivation specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Robbins and Everitt (1999) explain that drugs often create neural side effects that lead the addict to action every time they require it. This was the primary positive reinforcement that Crowley (1972) was talking about. A certain sensation causes most of these drug takers to move from one component to the other. Environmental factors are also an important motivation for drug use and relapse for those who are abstaining from the habit. Siege et. al. (2000) explain that increase in drug taking is associated with the continual availability of drugs. This explains why use of certain hard drugs is common in the ghetto s. This was affirmed through self administration of drugs by rats. Stress also makes drug users susceptible to drug use. Baker et. al (2004) explain that most drug addicts tend to avoid stressful states and this implies that environmental factors are a case of negative reinforcement. Goeders (2004) adds that stress causes addiction because it reminds a section of the brain called the HPT that the drugs can avert the negative feelings. Consequently, a drug user who had gone through prolonged periods of abstinence may relapse when too much stress occurs. Developmental factors also make drug users predisposed to the use of drugs. It has been shown that drug use often begins at the adolescent age. Volkow and Wise (2005) affirm that changes in delayed developments of a certain section of the brain known as the prefrontal context leads to greater risk taking behavior. Adolescents have not yet developed this part of the brain so most may be impulsive or maybe likely to get involved in drug s without really thinking about the long term consequences of it. Lastly, Eysenk (1999) illustrated that there is a relationship between the personality of an individual and that person’s propensity for drugs. It has been illustrated that drugs do play a resource function. In other words, if an individual has a certain personality deficiency such as too much introversion, then that person is likely to seek out drugs which will cause him to be more talkative and uninhibited. Personality also acts as a motivator owing to the prevalence of psychotic functions of the addict. Eysenk (1999) carried out an analysis of various individuals and found that most users tended to be impulsive, impersonal, aggressive, cold and egocentric. These were all behavior traits synonymous to the psychotic personality so this is an important motivator. Genetic predispositions also lead to drug use as asserted by Nestler (2000) who found that particular variations in rats tend to affect susceptibility to drugs thus showing that genes had a mediating effect. Nonetheless, the particular genes were not found as a complex combination of them could lead to vulnerability to addiction.Advertising Looking for term paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Implications of the experimental evidence The revelation that drug use is associated with developmental factors illustrates that adolescents can be specifically targeted during preventive measures since they are likely to begin drug taking without thinking about the consequences. The findings that neurobiological mechanisms lead to the start and continual use of drugs imply that a substitute for similar responses maybe used in earlier phases of drug treatment. Also, findings that link drug use to environmental factors like stress imply that dealing with stress can be an effective way of curbing this. Personality factors imply that certain individuals just tend to be more impulsive. This component can be used in treatment programs by providing immediate rewards as it would resonate with the drug user. Conditioned behavior therefore illustrates that there are indeed certain triggers which can be eradicated during treatment. Limitations of the findings Most of the researches did not li nk their findings to practical implications. In other words, few tangible solutions were given to the use of these motivators as preventative or treatment techniques. Essentially, most of the studies were inquiring about drug motivation but they did not offer answers to this pressing problem. Future directions In the future, it will be appropriate to link these motivational factors to treatment or preventive outcomes. A multimodal approach would be the best bet because not only would it ensure that drug treatments are patient centered but it would also increase the accuracy of interventions because specific motivators or reinforcers will be neutralized. For instance, if it has been found that personality was one of the motivators of drug use through impulsivity then short term rewards can be introduced into the program. Also, if availability of drugs is found to be the problem then patients may either be removed from their environments or closely monitored through peer groups. Concl usion It has been found that motivation for drug use can be subdivided into six sections which include genetic predisposition, developmental factors, neurobiological mechanisms, neurobiological adaptations, personality and environmental factors. Most of the literature has not linked these findings to treatment programs to be used by drug users yet problems tend to be solved only after relating them to their initial causes. All or any of these factors may have led a person to addiction so treatment methods need to relate to those motivations (no matter how many they are). This piece therefore suggests future research in the development of multimodal approaches to drug treatment and prevention depending on the risk factors and the motivations for drug use. References Baker, T., Piper, M., McCarthy, D., Fire, M. Majeskie, M. (2004). Addiction motivation reformulated: an affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychological review, 111(1), 33-51 Chambers, A., Taylor, J., Potenza, M. (2003). Developmental neurocircuitry of motivation in adolescence: a critical period of addiction vulnerability. American Journal of psychiatry, 160, 1041-152 Crowley, T. (1972). The reinforcers for drug abuse: why people take drugs. Comprehensive psychiatry, 13(1), 51-63 Eysenck, H. (1997). Addiction, personality and motivation. Human psychopharmacology, 12,S79-87 Goeders, N. (2004). Stress, motivation and drug addiction. Current directions in psychological science, 13(1), 33-36 Nestler, E. (2000). Genes and addiction. Nature, 26, 277-282 Robbins, T. Everitt, B. (1999). Drug addiction: bad habits add up. Nature, 398(15), 567-601 Serge, A., Walker, J., Koob., G. (2000). Heroin in rats with a history of drug escalation. Neuropychopharmacology, 22(10), 413-421 Volkow, N. Wise, R. (2005). How can drug addiction help us understand obesity? Nature Neuroscience, 8(5), 555-561

5 Errors in Noun-Verb Agreement

5 Errors in Noun-Verb Agreement 5 Errors in Noun-Verb Agreement 5 Errors in Noun-Verb Agreement By Mark Nichol As shown in the examples below, when writers craft sentences with more than one noun or pronoun in the subject, they sometimes misidentify the key noun or pronoun and assign the wrong verb form to it. Discussion and revision in each sentence describes and solves the problem. 1. â€Å"Five days are too short for a vacation.† The singular form of the verb â€Å"to be,† rather than the plural form, is appropriate here because of the context- the writer is referring to a collective unit of time consisting of five days, not to five units of time consisting of a day each: â€Å"Five days is too short for a vacation.† 2. Which of the following statements best describe your situation? The verb in this sentence refers not to statements but to one of several statements- represented by the pronoun which- each of which is, in turn, being contemplated on its own, so the verb form should be singular: â€Å"Which of the following statements best describes your situation?† 3. Each of the top five priorities identified this year are technology related.   Just as in the previous example, the first word in this sentence is a place-holder representing one priority. The five priorities are being considered in isolation, one at a time, so a singular verb is appropriate: â€Å"Each of the top five priorities identified this year is technology related.† 4. We believe that a diversity among people and perspectives create high-performing organizations. Diversity, not the combination of â€Å"people and perspectives,† is the operative noun here, so the verb form should be singular: â€Å"We believe that a diversity among people and perspectives creates high-performing organizations.† 5. A combination of these factors, along with a number of wider digital transformation and economic trends, have focused attention on regulatory technology as a topic. Combination, not factors, is the noun that the helping verb is associated with (and the parenthetical phrase located between factors and the verb is irrelevant to the verb form): â€Å"A combination of these factors, along with a number of wider digital transformation and economic trends, has focused attention on regulatory technology as a topic.† Some people may disagree, arguing that combination, like descriptive words such as couple, majority, and variety, calls for notional agreement (or notional concord), in which plural nouns that modifying phrases that include collective nouns are associated with, rather than the collective nouns themselves, are considered the â€Å"target† of the verb. However, usage strongly favors singular concord, in which the verb concords, or agrees, with the collective noun (the â€Å"notion†). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Idioms About TalkingDeck the HallsUses of the Past Participle

Presidential Powers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Presidential Powers - Essay Example Under the devolved system of governance, the President’s powers were trimmed and redistributed to the local governments. However, the president still enjoys three sources of power that include constitutional, institutional, and political sources. This present essay will focus on these current sources of power for the presidency and it will begin with an assessment of the constitutional powers of the President, followed by an assessment of how the 20th century presidents of the U.S have been able to use institutional and political resources to overcome challenges brought about by weak constitutional presidential powers. Lastly, the essay will highlight on the likely future balance of power between the Presidents and the Congress. Constitutional powers of the President It is correct to argue that the ratification of the constitution resulted in the presidency having weak powers. According to Ginsberg et al., these constitutional powers of the President are spelt out in Article T wo of the U.S constitution, which formally creates the executive arm of the central government that is made up of the President, the Vice President, and other presidential appointees. In particular, presidential powers are stated under section 2 of Article Two and they are split into three clauses (387-391). Clause 1 under Article Two gives the President exclusive powers over the U.S’ armed forces since the President is the Commander-in-chief. Furthermore, the clause states that the President shall become the Commander in Chief of militia of several states when he/ she is called into service. However, according to Ginsberg et al., this is power is weakened by the fact that it is only Congress, which can declare war (375). Nevertheless, this fact has been an issue of contention, more so during the Bush era, when President George Bush circumvented the Congress and seemingly declared war on Afghanistan while the Congress simply approved his decision. With reference to the writin gs by Ginsberg et al., it can be argued that Clause 1 is vague in the sense that during times of war there is usually no time to debate and wait for the Congress to declare war (403-405). Therefore, it can be assumed that the President is acting in the best interest of the Nation by declaring war at a strategic time. Under Clause 2, the President has powers to make treaties and nominate Judges of the Supreme Court, public Ministers, Ambassadors, and key Officers of the U.S. However, this power is watered down by the fact that the President must first seek the advice and consent from the senate before making any Treaty and nominations and there are instances where the senate has repealed certain treaties signed by Presidents (Ginsberg et al. 412-415). The third Presidential power is spelt out under Clause 3, which gives the President Powers to make a recess appointment that expires when the next session of the senate ends or until the appointee is confirmed by the senate. This Presid ential power is also weakened by the fact that these appointments are not permanent and they are only made when the senate is on recess. How U.S Presidents in the 20th century have used institutional and political resources to overcome weakness of Presidential powers With references to the writings by Ginsberg et al., he noted that U.S Presidents in the 20th century as well as the 21st century have laid claim to certain inherent powers that they feel are intertwined with the powers that have been granted to them under Article Two of the constitution (Ginsberg et al. 423-428). Moreover, the Presidents have been able to lay claim on this inherent powers because the constitution is

Psychology assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Psychology assignment - Essay Example Sometimes it is defined as the ability of a person to cognitively manipulate information and problem solve. Many tests, such as the SAT and/or ACT, are designed to capture these cognitive abilities through appraising skills in arithmetic and reading. However, many psychologists and scientists alike argue whether this is a fair assessment of intelligence. One of the more encompassing theories of intelligence comes from Howard Gardner who developed the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Gardner proposed that there were seven â€Å"types† of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal intelligence. This theory into intelligence provided a good explanation for why those that have impaired cognitive abilities could still perform a concerto or create an artistic masterpiece (Shaffer, and Kipp 350-52). Raymond Cattell theorized another important component in which intelligence is commonly defined. He postulated two main components of intelligence: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence. Crystalline intelligence consists of all the knowledge we have complied together in memory and is stored for future use. Fluidic intelligence refers to our problem solving ability and the ability/speed in which we are able to process information. These types of intelligences are inversely proportional, meaning that the older we get the more developed our crystalline intelligence gets and our fluid intelligence decreases (Sigelman, and Rider 227). This can show a trend in both the biological and environmental conditions resulting in intelligence in relation to the aging process. Psychology has been a field of study, which has been influenced by a wide variety of other disciplines such as biology, philosophy, and culture. This is because the field of psychology intertwines ideas from all of these areas, which prompted the questioning of whether the majority of psychological phenomenon was the resul t of the biologically driven concept or whether it was the result of the environment. Many different aspects of psychology are more driven by these components. Theories dealing in the sub-discipline of neuroscience and clinical disorders often are driven by the biology. Thoughts such as in many counseling theories and health psychology relate directly to the environment in which the individual is interacting with. Therefore, many have taken the middle ground by showing that psychology is influenced by epigenetic principles, which relies on the premise that both biology and environment equally influence the course of a person’s development. The beginning of the nature vs. nurture debate in regards to intelligence started with Francis Galton. He was a cousin to evolutionary biologist Charles Darwin. Galton followed the studies of his cousin and took a strong interest in his theories of natural selection and the involvement of the selection of traits. He also had knowledge in th e field of genetics where it was hypothesized that information and hereditary traits were past from parent to offspring through genes. Therefore, Galton hypothesized that no amount of schooling and studying could affect one’s intelligence due to the fact that keys of intelligence are passed through genetics and that this ran in families. Galton was the scientist who coined the term â€Å"

Relflection Paper Essay Example for Free

Relflection Paper Essay When enrolling into a new class, it is normal to have expectations. I am excited and nervous at the same time. I understand that the upcoming semester will provide many challenges I will have to face. I am excited to see how I will grow academically over the course of the semester. I find myself eager about learning new things and refreshing my knowledge on things I have forgotten. It has been a long time since I have studied the growth and development of humans. I have strengths to bring to this class as well as weaknesses that I plan to work on during this class. By the end of this course I expect to be able to apply what I learn in counseling and become a better writer. While this class will be more stimulating than what I have been used to I hope that with the help of my classmates and my professor I can make this class a positive learning experience. During my undergraduate career, I took many psychology classes involving the human development. In one of my undergraduate classes, Lifespan Development, we went through the lifespan of people from birth until death. I took this class online and the class involved a lot of self-teaching. Because the class was online, assignments consisted of mostly online tests. While I learned a lot, I do not feel as if I learned all that I could. I am looking forward to taking this class on a more challenging level and having a deeper understanding in human growth and development. One of my biggest weaknesses is engaging in class discussions and presentations. Although I have an extroverted personality, I am very shy when it comes presentations. It takes time for me to get comfortable speaking in front a group of people. While doing presentations and engaging in class discussions, I get very nervous. In this class, a big part of my grade comes from this. Therefore, in this class I expect to get over my fear of public speaking. I hope that with the help of my professor I gain confidence about speaking in front of groups of people. I want to be able to take what I have learned in this class, apply it to counseling and also have a better understanding of what I have learned. This class will be an introduction of what to look forward to for the next three years. I am not used to writing papers and having to do so much reflective thinking. I believe this experience will help me become a better writer. In order for me to achieve all of my expectations, it is important that my professor help me when I need it, challenge me and give me constructive critism. In addition, if I want to take all that I can from this class it is imperative for me to give this class all that I have and spend time reading and completing my projects. I know that during this semester, there will be challenges but with the instruction of my professor, I plan to grow in my profession.

Hypothesis :: essays research papers

Hypothesis 2: Most Pupils Travel To School By Bus And Travel At Least 10 Miles. Most people travel to school by bus and travel at least 10 miles. The amounts of people who travel by bus from my random samples are 25 pupils all together. The amount of pupils who travel to school by car is 2 pupils and the amount of pupils who get to school by walking is 3 pupils. The bar graph which shows you the distance the pupils have travelled shows the pupils who travel less than 10 and more than 10 miles. This bar graph is the main graph for this hypothesis as we are also trying to find out if pupils travel more than 10 miles. The average miles travelled less than 10 miles is 5 miles and 12 people travelled less than 10 miles. The average miles travelled more than 10 miles is 23 miles and the amount of people who travelled more than 10 miles is 10 pupils. Though 1 reason why pupils may travel a large distance to get to Loreto is because they want to get a good education or it might have been the closest catholic grammar school. Pupils take the bus because they get a free bus pass –though this bus pass is given to pupils who live m0ore than 3 miles away. Pupils may take the bus as it might be more convenient to the parents as the parents won’t have to drop children off at school before going to work. The petrol costs are going higher and so if they are given the free bus pass why should the parents say NO? Maybe if you travel by bus you could get more friends which is called social element. Most pupils travel more than 10 miles away and therefore it is too far to walk or cycle to Loreto. If more people travel by bus then that would be more environmentally friendly and less vehicles are being used-which means less pollution.

Conservation of Electricity

Electricity is the flow of electrical power or charge. It is a secondary energy source, which means that we get it from the conversion of other sources of energy, like coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear power and other natural sources. The energy sources we use to make electricity can be renewable or non-renewable. Despite, its great importance in our daily lives, most of us rarely stop to think what life would be like if suddenly our world was without electricity!I shudder at the thought. All machines would stop; cities and towns would be into total darkness and panic. The end result would be destructive. Yet, like air and water we tend to take electricity for granted. Our daily lives are completely dominated by electricity, from lighting and cooling our homes to powering our televisions, computers, washers and stoves. Electricity is a controllable and convenient form of energy used in the application of heat, light and power.As responsible home owners and consumers, we should take the initiative to conserve energy. We need to be aware of our options and make our homes energy efficient. There are lots of household appliances with the logo â€Å"Energy Star†, these products can help reduce high energy bills and protect the environment from global warming. We also need to enforce several basic energy saving rules in our homes.Firstly, turn off lights and televisions whenever you leave a room, switch from higher wattage standard light bulbs to lower wattage compact fluorescents light, shut down computers after use because ‘stand by’ mode still uses electricity. Also unplug any battery and cell phone chargers once the units are fully charge. Solar energy is another alternative source of energy. It allows you to produce your own electricity with no noise, no air pollution or moving parts while using a clean renewable resource. So lets make promise that we will conserve electricity.

Economic welfare analysis in India Rubber Essay

Questions: (a) Using the concepts and diagrams outlined in our seminars, explain fully the impact on India’s economic welfare of access to the world market for natural rubber International trade provide the comparative advantage. All countries can be the beneficiaries when trade with one another, because trade allows each country to specialize in doing what it does best. However, the seller or buyer may be damaged from international trade because the world price may higher or lower than domestic balancing price, then it may impact on producer or consumer’s surplus and continue to change the countries’ economic welfare for this import or export market Before international trade, the participator of India’s natural rubber market only include domestic buyers and sellers, as the Figure a-1 shows, the domestic price is balancing between quantity supplied by domestic seller and the quantity demanded by domestic buyers, hence, the sum of the consumer and producer surplus which also called economic welfare in the equilibrium point measures the total benefits received by India’s rubber market from domestic consumer and domestic producer. In Figure a-1, without international trade, the sum of India’s economic welfare are the area A plus area B When accessing the world market for natural rubber, India’s economic welfare changes. Within the scenario, India is either an importing country or an exporting country, it import large amount of rubber and export were insignificant. Figure a-2 shows that India as an importing country of natural rubber. The diagram presents that India’s domestic equilibrium price of natural rubber, also named price before trade is above the world price. Trade force the  domestic price fall and equal to the world price, due to the lower new price (world price), the quantity of consumed domestically higher than the quantity of produced domestically and the import b India equal to the difference between the domestic quantity supplied and the domestic quantity demanded at the world price. In this situation, domestic buyers are better off due to them now can buy rubber in lower price. However, domestic producer are damaged because they sell the rubber now in lower price. Moreover, consumer surplus and producer surplus also change and the change size also measure the amount of gain or loss. Combine Figure a-1 and Figure a-2 to Table a-3 shows that before trade, consumer surplus is area A, producer surplus is area B+C, and total surplus is area A+B+C. After trade, the consumer surplus becomes area A+B+D and producer surplus only in area C and total surplus is area A+B+C+D. The calculation illustrate above show that, India’s buyers gain from trade in an importing country because consumer surplus area enlarged B+C. In spite of this, India’s sellers suffer loss because the producer surplus area decrease by area B. In any event, the gains of buyer exceed the losses of sellers, and total surplus grow by the area D As previous stated, when India access world market and import large amount of natural rubber, the consumer welfare, producer welfare and total economic welfare of natural rubber market changes respectively. However, the gains from international trade exceed the losses which means the increases could compensate the decreases and still be better off. As Table a-3 shows, the total surplus also can treat as total economic welfare rises in area D and it represents the gain from the trade. In other words, trade internationally make India better off no matter India is deemed to be the importing country or exporting country. (b) Illustrate on your diagram the effect of a 10% decrease in rubber in rubber production Price of natural rubber P2 P1 Quantity of natural rubber With the case scenario, in 2013-14, the output of India rubber decrease 10% over a year before, on an average but consumer power was almost steady during this period. It means that, the quantity of rubber demanded is stable however the quantity of rubber supplied decreased. Hence, with figure b-1, only supply curve shift and demand curve stay the same. Within Figure b-1, in FY 2012, the Demand curve and Supply curve move together and adjusted to the balance under market organization, the equilibrium on FY2012 as the diagram show was the initial balancing point. Furthermore, at initial equilibrium, the Q1 represents the price that these two curves cross and named as the initial equilibrium price, additionally, P1 called the initial equilibrium quantity. In the year 2013-14(FY2013), due to the decline quantity of rubber production, the supply curve moves and shifts to the left from Supply-I to Supply-II as Figure b-1 illustrated, it also means that at every price, the total amount of natural rubber that rubber producer are able to sell is decreased. Accordingly, Supply-II curve and demand curves intersect in the point of New equilibrium. P2 and Q2 represent the new equilibrium price and new equilibrium quantity respectively. Consequently, as Figure b-1 shows, the shift in the supply curve lead to the equilibrium price raises from P1 to P2 and lowers the equilibrium quantity  from Q1 to Q2. In conclusion, as the result of 10% decrease in rubber production, the price of domestic rubber increases and the quantity of rubber sold decreases, moreover the equilibrium point also shift up and left. (c) Describe fully the economic welfare effects of a significant import tariff in India An import tariff means the tax caused by production produced oversea and sold domestically. When illustrate Figure c-1 shows that, as an importing country, before import tariff, India domestic price falls and equals the world price. The consumer surplus was area A+B+D+E+F+G, and producer surplus refer to area C, at world price, the tax revenue that government earn is nothing. Furthermore, as indicated earlier, when India assess trade internationally, domestic sellers are suffer loss by world price and contrastingly, domestic buyer gain from global trade. Moreover, without tariff, the tax revenue government earned nothing and total economic welfare increased. However, when government concentrating attention on import tariff, the economic welfare changes. As Figure c-1 shows that, a tariff make the price of import rubber above the world price by amount of the tariff. When compete with suppliers of rubber imported, domestic producer now can sell their natural rubber for world price plus tariff. Hence, either domestic suppliers or imported suppliers increase the rubber price by the amount of tariff. Domestic seller and domestic buyer also change their surplus because import tariff raise the price of rubber, with figure c-1, the tariff reduce the domestic quantity demanded from Qd1 to Qd2 and increase the domestic quantity demanded from Qs1 to Qs2. It means import tariff decrease the quantity of imports and make rubber market closer to its initial equilibrium before trade internationally. Additionally, import tariff make domestic producer in better situation but domestic buyers suffer loss, and government earn tax revenue from tariff. When consider table c-2, and compare the consumer surplus and producer surplus change shows that, consumer surplus reduce the area of B+F+D+G, and producer surplus growth by area B. Furthermore, the government revenue equal to area F which is the quantity of after-tariff imports multiply by the size of tariff. Moreover, total surplus fall in area D+F that represents the deadweight loss1 of the tariff. Due to the tariff is a kind of tax, thus, it’s no doubtful that the tariff caused a deadweight loss. Because under the free trade, market power will make the resource disposition optimization, however, tariff will distorts market incentives and continue to affect market to allocate the resources inefficiently. In other words, trade internationally with tariff make India domestic price higher than before, hence, it gives producers an intensive to produce more and intensive buyers to consumer less. With Figure c-1, area D and G represents the deadweight loss from overproduction of rubbers and underconsumption respectively. Furthermore, tariff make the market shrink below optimum. In conclusion, trade internationally with import tariff in India natural market damage the buyers’ benefit and decrease the consumer surplus. On contrast, compare to world price, domestic suppliers gain from import tariff because they can charge rubber now in higher price, and the producer surplus raise up. Moreover, import tax revenue achieved by government. And, total economic welfare falls because market suffer deadweight loss caused by import tariff, in fact, due to tariff, India rubber market is distorted and smaller than before. Additionally, small market of import and large market of import may suffer different total surplus. i) Assuming India to be a small part of the global market for natural rubber If India as a small part of the global market for natural rubber, it means India has low power in import and the exporting suppliers are not pay more  attention in India rubber market, hence, India only can accept the world price as given but hardly to bargain the price of import, thus when a tariff is implemented by India, there no effect on world price, also as the exporting price. When analysis the effect on India rubber market if India as a small part of global rubber market, the supply curve of natural rubber in India can be treated as perfectly elastic supply and the supply curve is horizontal at the level of world price as Figure c-3 shows. With this circumstance, exporter want to export as much of the product to India in given world price. Now, when India take a tariff on imports, from table c-4 shows that, after tariff, the consumer surplus fall in area B&C and the producer surplus no changes. Government received tariff increases in area B and total surplus falls as indicated earlier, the loss part in table c-4 refer to area C which represent the underconsumption of domestic buyers. Hence, if India as a small part of global market for natural rubber, whenever it implements an import tariff, national welfare falls. And the higher tariff India sets, the large loss to Indian national economic welfare. Furthermore, domestic buyers may be the only part hurt by import tariff, because exporting rubber may be the only way they can buy for, and compare to producers oversea, domestic demand is more inelastic, thus, domestic buyer pay all the market loss caused by tariff. ii) Assuming India to be a large part of the global market for natural rubber Before tariff After tariff Change Consumer surplus A+B+L+E+F+I A+E -(B+F+L+I) Producer surplus C+D B+C+D +B Government NONE F+G +(F+G) Total surplus A+B+C+D+E+F+I+L A+B+C+D+E+F+G G-(L+I) Assuming India as a large part of global market for natural rubber means that, Indian’s imports a very large share of the world market. Large part of imports also means India has tremendous effect on world rubber demand, hence India may affect the world price. Furthermore, when a significant import tariff executed by Indian government, there will affect upon exporting price due to India has higher bargain power to its exporting countries, and India can ask the exporting countries to offer a price lower than world price of natural rubber to India, With the Figure c-5, assume that the P* is the price that exporting countries agreed export price and it lower than world price. Hence when illustrate Figure c-5 and summarized in table c-6 shows that, when India import large amount of rubber, the price of rubber import lower than world price, however, when an import tariff implemented, the domestic rubber price goes up and economic welfare changes. At the price of P*, the amount of rubber import equal to Qd2 minus Qs2, and with tariff, the rubber price rise up and the quantity demand reduce from Qd2 to Qd3, the quantity supplied grow from Qs2 to Qs3, moreover, the amount of import equal to Qd3 minus Qs3. Although the tax revenue still equal to the quantity rubber of imports times the size of the tariff, compare to small quantity of import, the tax revenue had been enlarged. Refer to Figure  c-5, area G represent the tax revenue enlargement. Obviously, when compare Indian economic welfare on world price and with import tariff, there is no doubt that, the consumer surplus fall and producer surplus increase, area L and I represent the deadweight loss from overproduction and underproduction of Indian natural rubber. Noteworthy that, government gain tax revenue by area G and F, and total surplus change by G-(L+I), it means that, if India implement a significant import tariff and make the area G big enough to exceed area L+I, Indian total economic welfare increased. In conclusion, if India as a large part of the global market for natural rubber, compare total economic welfare on world price and with the import tariff, the domestic consumer surplus decreased and producer surplus increase, it means domestic buyer and exporting suppliers share the market loss from import tariff. However, the government tax revenue enlarged when compared to small part of importing market and it worth noticed that, the total surplus different than normal and small market before, the figure equal to the tax enlargement minus the deadweight loss caused by tariff.. As we have seen, if the tax enlargement part large than the deadweight loss area, India as a large importing country will increase its economic welfare. Additionally, domestic buyer undertake large part of import tariff because they pay higher price on importing rubber and other part of tariff beard by foreign supplier, because they reduce the exporting price which means they earn less by each production. Hence, if the demand curve and supply curve more elastic or more flat, the domestic consumer for lesser in tariff. (d) Suppose the Minister for Trade has recently been requested to consider an import tariff, or quota, or other assistance to the domestic rubber industry. Provide the Minister with appropriate advice, based on your analysis. Dear Minister: Due to the annual statement of India domestic natural rubber market, the gap between domestic production and consumption of natural rubber increasing from FY 2012 to FY 2013. The growing gap fills by importing, and the price of world for natural rubber lower than at home which strike India domestic suppliers too. Hence, according to India domestic rubber depression, some tax policy should issue in order to stimulate domestic supply. You mention that now you consider an import tariff or quota to assistant to domestic rubber industry, please allow me to explain these different type of tax and wish I could help you to do the decision-making. First of all, as one part of global market, India as an importing country and accept the world price of natural rubber, in this circumstance, although domestic producer suffer loss, the domestic demander gain from global trade, furthermore, India total surplus increased which means trade globally enhance India’s total economic welfare. Then we talk about the changes when India take an import tariff or quota in international trade. Import tariff is a type of tax issued by government, however, tax increase the domestic price and continue to affect the supply-demand mechanism. Before tax, market allocates the scarced resource optimization and impose an import tariff makes market distortion and away from utilize resource optimum. Nevertheless, implement an import tariff may stimulate domestic producer, because tariff increase domestic rubber price and domestic supplier can compete with rubber suppliers oversea. The producer surplus raise up and the government achieves tax revenue from import size. But the cost of implementing tariff is that domestic consumer harm from the tax, and Indian total economic welfare of natural rubber decreased, because impose an tariff bring deadweight loss, which means the revenue increased would smaller than the losses, thus Indian economic welfare of natural rubber falls. An import quota implement the similar function with import tariff, with  figure below, the import quota also generate the deadweight losses which represented in area D and F, hence impose an quota also hurt the Indian total economic welfare of natural rubber. In conclusion, in the perspective of economics view, I think the most efficiency way is approve Indian trade internationally without import tariff or import quota. However, if the purpose is to assist India domestic rubber market and make incentives, impose an import tariff and quota may be required but the cost is harmful to domestic consumer and total economic welfare of India natural rubber. I wish my suggestions helpful to you to consider your new policy. Respectfully, 27-04-2014 REFERENCE: Mankiw, N. G., 2008. Principle of economics.Cengage Learning, p. 159.

Assigning Oxidation States Example Problem

Assigning Oxidation States Example Problem The oxidation state of an atom in a molecule refers to the degree of oxidation of that atom. Oxidation states are assigned to atoms by a set of rules based on the arrangement of electrons and bonds around that atom. This means each atom in the molecule has its own oxidation state which could be different from similar atoms in the same molecule.These examples will use the rules outlined in Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers. Key Takeaways: Assigning Oxidation States An oxidation number refer to the quantity of electrons that may be gained or lost by an atom. An atom of an element may be capable of multiple oxidation numbers.The oxidation state is the positive or negative number of an atom in a compound, which may be found by comparing the numbers of electrons shared by the cation and anion in the compound needed to balance each others charge.The cation has a positive oxidation state, while the anion has a negative oxidation state. The cation is listed first in a formula or compound name. Problem: Assign oxidation states to each atom in H2OAccording to rule 5, oxygen atoms typically have an oxidation state of -2.According to rule 4, hydrogen atoms have an oxidation state of 1.We can check this using rule 9 where the sum of all oxidation states in a neutral molecule is equal to zero.(2 x 1) (2 H) -2 (O) 0 TrueThe oxidation states check out.Answer: The hydrogen atoms have an oxidation state of 1 and the oxygen atom has an oxidation state of -2.Problem: Assign oxidation states to each atom in CaF2.Calcium is a Group 2 metal. Group IIA metals have an oxidation of 2.Fluorine is a halogen or Group VIIA element and has a higher electronegativity than calcium. According to rule 8, fluorine will have an oxidation of -1.Check our values using rule 9 since CaF2 is a neutral molecule:2 (Ca) (2 x -1) (2 F) 0 True.Answer: The calcium atom has an oxidation state of 2 and the fluorine atoms have an oxidation state of -1.Problem: Assign oxidation states to the atoms in hypochlorou s acid or HOCl. Hydrogen has an oxidation state of 1 according to rule 4.Oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 according to rule 5.Chlorine is a Group VIIA halogen and usually has an oxidation state of -1. In this case, the chlorine atom is bonded to the oxygen atom. Oxygen is more electronegative than chlorine making it the exception to rule 8. In this case, chlorine has an oxidation state of 1.Check the answer:1 (H) -2 (O) 1 (Cl) 0 TrueAnswer: Hydrogen and chlorine have 1 oxidation state and oxygen has -2 oxidation state.Problem: Find the oxidation state of a carbon atom in C2H6. According to rule 9, the sum total oxidation states add up to zero for C2H6.2 x C 6 x H 0Carbon is more electronegative than hydrogen. According to rule 4, hydrogen will have a 1 oxidation state.2 x C 6 x 1 02 x C -6C -3Answer: Carbon has a -3 oxidation state in C2H6.Problem: What is the oxidation state of the manganese atom in KMnO4?According to rule 9, the sum total of oxidation states of a neutral molecule equal zero. K Mn (4 x O) 0Oxygen is the most electronegative atom in this molecule. This means, by rule 5, oxygen has an oxidation state of -2.Potassium is a Group IA metal and has an oxidation state of 1 according to rule 6.1 Mn (4 x -2) 01 Mn -8 0Mn -7 0Mn 7Answer: Manganese has an oxidation state of 7 in the KMnO4 molecule.Problem: What is the oxidation state of the sulfur atom in the sulfate ion - SO42-.Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur, so the oxidation state of oxygen is -2 by rule 5.SO42- is an ion, so by rule 10, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the ion is equal to the charge of the ion. In this case, the charge is equal to -2.S (4 x O) -2S (4 x -2) -2S -8 -2S 6Answer: The sulfur atom has an oxidation state of 6.Problem: What is the oxidation state of the sulfur atom in the sulfite ion - SO32-?Just like the previous example, oxygen has an oxidation state of -2 and the total oxidation of the ion is -2. The only difference is the one less oxygen. S (3 x O) -2S (3 x -2) -2S -6 -2S 4Answer: Sulfur in the sulfite ion has an oxidation state of 4.

The 5 Best AP World History Books for Practice and Review

The 5 Best AP World History Books for Practice and Review SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips It's hard to know where to begin when studying for AP World History. Though the exam mainly covers broad themes and trends, there's so much information to sift through that it can be easy to get lost in the weeds. Review books can help guide your study plan, ensure that you revisit the most important concepts, and provide critical test-taking strategies. In this article, I'll go through the best books to use for studying AP World History and how you can choose one that will give you the tools you need to ace this test. What’s in This Guide? This is a list of the most helpful review books that you can use to study for the AP World History exam and other assessments in class throughout the year.These books are meant to be used in conjunction with a high-quality textbook, so most of them are not stand-alone resources for self-studying.However, some are more thorough than others. For world history, review books can make the choice to either focus exclusively on the content you need to know for the AP exam (which is what most of them do), or go more in-depth and market themselves as in-class study aids as well.I’ll list the books that are the most reliable resources for long-term and short-term studying as well as a few that you might consider buying as supplemental resources.I’ll also give you specific pros and cons for each book so you can make a more informed decision about which one fits your needs best. Best Overall Review Book Cracking the AP World History Exam (Princeton Review) Price: about $15 Pros Focuses on larger trends and themes rather than small superfluous details; it only tells you about the essential stuff you need to know for the test Easy to follow and written in a conversational style Two full-length AP practice tests with analytical multiple-choice questions that closely model College Board materials Timeline of events at the end of every section to help you organize the information you’ve learned chronologically Good tips for designing your study plan and for taking the actual test Cons Could improve on essay-writing advice/practice, and doesn’t contain sample essays Not quite detailed enough to use for self-studying Summary I’d consider this book to be the best overall resource because you can make it work for you no matter what your study timeline or score goals happen to be.It doesn’t go overboard in the information it provides, but it also isn’t so sparse that it’s only useful for a quick review before the test.The practice tests are good quality with questions that accurately reflect the difficulty level of the AP exam.Its engaging writing style combined with a focus on key themes and overall chronology of events make this a great resource for almost any student. Best Book for Short-Term Review AP World History Crash Course Price: about $13 Pros Really good for a quick content review in the weeks before the test Great test-taking tips Contains only the information you need to know for the exam Chapters are written in easy-to-digest outline form Cons No practice exams Can’t be used to review for in-class tests and assignments or self-study without supplementing with a textbook Summary This book is called â€Å"Crash Course† for a reason; it’s made for those of you who’ve waited until the last minute to start studying.This book covers everything you need to know for the test and doesn’t mess around with any extra unnecessary details.Students find this book to be a helpful refresher that can be useful even as late as a week before the AP test.Just be warned that you’ll need to get your practice tests elsewhere if you want to estimate your AP score! Best Book for Long-Term Review Barron’s AP World History, 7th Edition Price: about $15 Pros Good tips for free-response questions (and sample essays!) Very thorough in its coverage of information Connects all the themes of the course to the events in each historical era Two full-length exams with answer explanations Cons Too much material to use for short-term AP review; it's more textbook than review book Overall dry, academic writing style that might make it hard to engage with the material No shorter practice tests at the end of each section for review Practice questions may be more challenging than exam questions Summary As is the norm with Barron’s books, this is a dense, highly detailed look at the course material that goes a bit overboard in its capacity as a â€Å"review book.†If you get it a couple of weeks before the AP test in hopes of quickly going over everything you need to know, you’re going to be overwhelmed.You should only buy this book if you plan to use it for a couple of months to prepare for the AP test or as a self-study resource that will accompany you throughout the course. I’d say this book is also for intense students who are genuinely very interested in the subject and would like to review content in more depth.If you have trouble paying attention to textbooks because of their dull writing style and are looking for something more student-friendly to keep you awake, you should probably get one of the first two books on this list instead. Best Supplemental Books 5 Steps to a 5 AP World History Price: about $18 Pros Comes with access to McGraw-Hill Education’s interactive AP Planner app, which gives you a customizable study schedule on your mobile device Four complete practice exams A few different sample study plans to choose from to guide your studying accompanied by a calendar so you can see everything laid out Helpful charts and short quizzes for each unit Short and more digestible than other review books Cons Not detailed enough to use to study for assignments throughout the year Two practice tests are on the computer, which isn't how you'll take the real AP exam Summary This book falls between the Princeton Review and Crash Course regarding its level of detail.It’s easy to grasp, and it has a decent amount of practice materials.If you need more sample questions and want a book that gives you a straightforward, step-by-step study process, this is a nice resource to have. AP World History Study Guide Price: about $11 Pros High-quality 50-question practice quiz with answer explanations Strong section on test-taking strategies In-depth summaries for key concepts Short and sweet - doesn’t give you more information than you need Cons Format could use some work - there’s a lot of text and not a lot of graphics No DBQ prompt Not good for long-term studying because it’s tailored to cover only the material on the AP exam Summary This book is sparse on practice questions and graphics, so if you zone out easily, it could be tough getting through the walls of text.Still, it’s very short, and it is good at going through only what you need to know.This is a book that you could buy if you’re a week or two away from the test and want a way to review all the information quickly and learn good test-taking strategies. Which AP World HistoryBook Should You Get? All of these books are helpful in their own ways. I'd recommend starting with one of the first three, ideally whichever one aligns best with your time limits and style of learning. The Princeton Review book should be a good fit for a wide variety of students. If you have a month or two to study and are looking for a one-size-fits-all accessible guide to the test, you should go with that one. The Crash Course book is better if you're short on time and just need a way to review all the concepts quickly and efficiently. This is the best option if you only have a week or two until the exam or are looking for a book that just outlines the most essential concepts. Barron's is best for self-study throughout the year or review over the course of a few months. If you're an intense student and want a book that you can use throughout the year to study for both in-class assessments and the AP test, Barron's isa good option for you. If you get one of the first three books and run out of practice materials or aren't a fan of the way the information is presented, you can go ahead and try one of the supplementary resources! Five Steps to a 5 is more suited to long-term study, and the AP World History Study Guide is better for a quick review. What's Next? Need more practice materials? Check out this article with links to every AP World History practice test available onlineand this article with links to the best DBQ examples. You don't necessarily need to buy a review book to get some great study tips. Read our list of six key strategies for doing well on the AP World History exam. When do you actually have to get yourself in gear and start studying?Find out when you should begin studying for your AP exams based on your goals. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Personal Response to Poems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Personal Response to Poems - Essay Example As do the plums, with their taut skin and juice, the tart flesh, all connected to the word 'delicious', suggesting a sensual, selfish, joyful gluttony, which children often indulge in. It makes me want to laugh, it is almost naughty. In Mary Oliver's 'August', the imagery here combines a joy of eating fruit again, but shows a child happy with nature and its own company, a pleasure in just 'being', conjured up in the way the poet says 'my body accepts what it is'. 'The Word Plum' stands out as concentrating entirely on the fruit and the sensations it elicits, while the others give more descriptive and external images to link the fruit and the child to an environment. In Roethke's 'My Papa's Waltz', there are sad and slightly dangerous undertones. The feeling aroused here is one of concern for the potential destruction of the little boy's happiness. I begin to become worried for him, despite his enjoyment and excitement, as something unpredictable and frenetic is present, I think the whiskey smell alerts me to this feeling. The words 'But I hung on like death' are significant, this father is creating mayhem, wrecking the room, and the child is half-delighted, half-fearful of the final outcome. But for love of his father, he suffers this delicious fear, as well as the buckle scraping his face. Even more sad is Robert Hayden's 'Those Winter Sundays'. I think of the fathers who work so hard and do so many unnoticed kindnesses, who are taken for granted. The child does this, the voice of the poet as a man, is filled with regret. There is also a feeling of potential disturbance expressed in the words 'and slowly did I rise and dress fearing the chronic angers of that house'. The last two poems of this group, while recalling childhood memories, suggest a more mature understanding, an awakening to the dangers which can effect the happiness of a child. They also make me think that with this awareness comes the realization that there are things a child cannot control or fully understand, but that despite this, they will try to remain h appy, to keep their innocence intact. All the poems suggest love is abundant, in various forms. The next group of poems also speaks of love, with many facets depicted, but it is the grown-up reality of the ways of the world which are portrayed. Marilyn Hacker's 'Villanelle' shares, I think, the discovery of young, physical love and tries to deepen understanding of how it takes over ones life, as in 'routines are harder to perpetuate.' It brings out a feeling of striving for what cannot be fully understood or attained; complete possession of another, because the separation may be as much mental as physical. Louise Gluck seems to echo this in 'Parable of Faith'. The other three poems seem to be more mature, or have more certainty, without losing the wonder of being in love, or loving deeply. For example, 'Love Poem' by John Frederick Nims tells of somebody accepting the beloved's faults or apparent inadequacies, the small, everyday things that do not really matter, because the essence of the person is far greater than these, and he loves her for that. 'With words and people and

Describe the main determinants of oral health inequalities. Discuss Essay

Describe the main determinants of oral health inequalities. Discuss dental public health strategies that can be implemented to tackle oral health inequalities - Essay Example Just as healthy body contributes in creating sound mind, similarly oral health is essential in maintaining a healthy body (Audobato, 2009). Due to this it can be stated that oral health and healthy body have a positive connection with each other. Surgeon David reported oral health as ‘silent epidemics’ and emphasized on the importance of oral health by creating a strong connection of oral health with other diseases. A human mouth is the main portal of a human body and bacteria which is present in the mouth causes and creates different systematic conditions. According to the doctors, dentists and physicians every part of the body is linked with each other. Thus if any problem exists in the mouth area then it causes adverse affects all over the body (Donaghy, 2006). An oral health disease also causes harmful effects on the physical and psychological well beings of the people and this further affects the overall quality of life. According to the study conducted in America it has been stated that 23% of 65-74 year age group suffer from severe periodontal diseases. But not all of them get cured because this facility is not provided to all as 5 % of the aged Americans live in long-term care facility where the this fac ility is not provided to them, thus inequality in oral health prevails. Generally individuals are reluctant in getting their oral problems cured because of the general cost associated with oral health, i.e. oral health issues are expensive to cure. The cost factor is the biggest factor for individual’s unwillingness all over the world. Thus, Oral health knowledge and awareness is not only important for the well being of the individuals but also for the well being of the society. A large population today enjoys all the services of dental and they are being taken care of their every oral health related problem. But with deep grief there still exists a